What is Anatomy?

Anatomy is a branch of biological science which is concerned with the description of body structures of various living organisms as revealed by dissection.

The word anatomy is derived from the Greek word “anatomē”, where “ana” means “up” and “tome” means “cutting.” Originally, anatomy was first learnt by cutting up corpses, hence the name “anatomy.”

Types of Anatomy

Anatomy could be classified into:

Human Anatomy – Human anatomy involves the study of the physical structure of the human body. It focuses on numerous systems, including circulatory, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, lymphatic, nervous, respiratory, urinary, reproductive and muscular systems.

Plant Anatomy – Also called the phytotomy. It is the study of the internal structure of a plant including the tissues, root system, stem, leaves, flower, fruit and seeds.

Animal Anatomy – Also called the zootomy. It deals with the study of the internal structure of an animal including the cells, tissues, organs, bones and other organs of the animal body.

As mentioned above, Anatomy was primarily learnt through dissection. The word ‘Anatomy’ and ‘dissection’ have virtually the same meaning in Greek and Latin. Besides the fact that both the words have the same source, anatomy has a broad discipline of its own and the word “dissection” is completely removed.

On the other hand, Physiology mainly deals with the functions and processes of the human body. It is distinctly different from anatomy as the latter deals specifically with the structure of the organism.

Anatomy is classified into:

1. Microscopic Anatomy (Histology)

2. Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic anatomy).

Microscopic Anatomy (Histology)

Also known as histology. Microscopic anatomy is the study of cells and tissues as discerned by a microscope. The individuals who specialize in this study are called histologists. The process involves marking and dividing cells and tissues into sections to be viewed under a microscope. The biological samples are dissected into thin slices so that they could be clearly examined. Stains are added to these dissected samples to enhance visibility and highlight important structures. Microscopic anatomy is useful to examine and compare different types of organisms, their structures and different stages of the cell cycle.

Application of Histology

• Histology slides are often used to explain the microstructures of biological cells and tissues.

• Analysis of tissue samples can reveal crucial information about any underlying infection or disease.

• Very helpful during the postmortems as it can pinpoint the exact cause of death.

• Useful in palaeontology, especially to identify fossils.

• Used in diagnosing certain cancer cells and biopsies.

• Useful in other domains of life science.

Gross Anatomy

Also known as macroscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is defined as the study of an organism’s structures which are visible to the naked eye. The main objective of Gross anatomy is to obtain complete information about the structural organization of an organism.

Application of Gross Anatomy:

• Gross anatomy is used for studying in detail about the different organs.

• Used in endoscopy, where a tube having a camera at the end is inserted into an organism’s body cavity.

• It is used in Angiography, where an opaque dye is injected into the blood vessels to view the blood circulation within the human body.

• The internal structures and organs of living beings are studied by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and X-rays.

Anatomy – Questions

• What is the difference between Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomy is the study of the internal structure and organs of living beings. Physiology mainly focuses on the functions and relationships of body parts.

• What are the types of Anatomy?

Microscopic Anatomy and  Macroscopic Anatomy are the two main types of Anatomy.

Microscopic Anatomy is the study of the structure of cells, tissue and other microscopic parts of the body which cannot be seen through the naked eye. For example the types of white blood cells, plant and animal tissues, etc.

Macroscopic Anatomy refers to the examination of organs, parts and other structures of living organisms which are visible to the naked eye. For example- All internal and external organs of an individual.

• What is the importance of Anatomy?

In the field of medicine and life science sectors, anatomy plays a vital role as it helps us to learn about the different parts of an organism, including plants, animals and humans, along with their structure and characteristic features.

• Who is called the father of Plant Anatomy?

Nehemiah Grew, an English botanist is known as the father of plant anatomy based on his observations and contributions. He also published many books on plants and his first book Anatomy of plants was published in the year 1682. K.A. Chaudhary is known as ‘Father of Indian plant anatomy.

What is Biotechnology?

Biotechnology is an amalgamation of biology and technology for our betterment and sustainable development. Modern biotechnology includes genetic engineering, bioinformatics and bioprocess engineering.

Genetic engineering is used to alter the genetic composition of an organism. It is widely used to insert a gene of choice like pest-resistant or antibiotic-resistant genes, etc. to a host by using a cloning vector. It integrates the desirable gene in the host genome and transformation can be seen in the phenotype of the host.

In Bioprocess engineering, the production of various products such as enzymes, antibodies, organic acids, vaccines, etc. is facilitated and done on a large scale. The desired microorganisms are grown under controled, sterile and suitable conditions for this purpose.

In bioinformatics, the biological data like genome and protein sequences are stored, maintained and retrieved for various purposes.

Explore more: Process Of Biotechnology

Here we will discuss the principles of biotechnology.

Principles of Biotechnology

Modern biotechnology is highly dependent on genetic engineering and bioprocess engineering.

Genetic Engineering

The principle of genetic engineering is to manipulate and modify the genetic material of an organism to incorporate desirable traits. Recombinant DNA technology is the main pillar of genetic engineering.

Recombinant DNA Technology is a technique to alter the genes of an organism. The desired gene is inserted into host using recombinant DNA technology. The host shows the desired trait phenotypically, which is governed by the inserted gene.

The recombinant DNA technology involves the following main steps:

• Selection of the desired gene

• Selection of vector for the transfer of the gene known as a cloning vector, e.g. plasmid

• Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host

• Maintaining the introduced DNA in the host so that it is passed on to the next generation

Recombinant DNA Technology requires various tools like vector, host and enzymes such as restriction enzymes, ligases, polymerases, etc.

Process

• Restriction enzymes are known as molecular scissors that cut the desired sequence of DNA.

• This DNA is then ligated into the vector with the help of ligases before inserting it into the host organism.

• The DNA-vector combination is known as the Recombinant DNA which is then transformed into the host.

• This recombinant DNA along with the foreign DNA gets multiplied within the host.

• It is then provided with optimum conditions to induce the expression of the target protein. This protein is known as the recombinant protein.

• Many genetically modified crops are produced using this technology, e.g. Bt cotton, a pest-resistant variety of cotton.

Bioprocess Engineering

Modern biotechnology is responsible for the advancement of the pharmaceutical industry. It helped in the production and storage of products like antibiotics, enzymes, vaccines, etc. on a large scale.

A large amount of culture can be obtained by carrying out the multiplication of organisms in the bioreactors under sterile and optimum conditions. We get a higher yield of the required product using bioprocess engineering.

Also Refer: Bioreactors

Process

• The host organism containing the rDNA is cultured in a sterile bioreactor by providing suitable growth conditions. The products formed are either released in the growth medium or accumulated inside the cells

• The obtained products are subjected to a series of processes before being marketed.

• The products are purified by a process called downstream processing and formulated by various processes.

• The product undergoes a strict quality check before it is subjected to further trials.

The modern processes in biotechnology are used for human welfare and have a significant impact on our life. The products have greatly enhanced various medicines and food production. Extensive research is going on in this field to combat various diseases and improve quality of life.

Also Read: Applications Of Biotechnology in Medicine

Learn more in detail about Biotechnology, its principles, process, and other related topics at BYJU’S Biology

Frequently Asked Questions on Biotechnology and Its Principles

Q1

What is bioprocess engineering?

Bioprocess engineering refers to the culturing of microorganisms in large quantities along with their downstream processing for the production of various products.

Q2

What is rDNA technology?

The rDNA technology (recombinant DNA technology) involves creating recombinant DNA by using a cloning vector and gene of interest. This rDNA has the ability to express the gene of interest in the host organism.

Q3

What is a cloning vector?

Cloning vector is also known as gene vehicle. It carries the gene of interest into the host organism. E.g.: Plasmid, BAC, retroviral vectors.

Q4

What are the steps involved in rDNA technology?

Selection of the desired gene
Selection of vector for the transfer of the gene known as a cloning vector, e.g. plasmid
Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host
Maintaining the introduced DNA in the host so that it is passed on to the next generation

Q5

What are the products produced by biotechnology?

Products produced by biotechnology are biopolymers, enzymes, antibiotics, alcohols, organic acids, proteins, hormones, and biomass.

Botany Meaning

“Botany is the branch of Biology that deals with the study of plants.”

The term ‘botany’ is derived from an adjective ‘botanic’ that is again derived from the Greek word ‘botane’. One who studies ‘botany’ is known as a ‘botanist’.

Botany is one of the world’s oldest natural sciences. Initially, Botany included all the plant-like organisms such as algae, lichens, ferns, fungi, mosses along with actual plants. Later on, it was observed that bacteria, algae and fungi belong to a different kingdom.

Also Refer:  Taxonomic Hierarchy

Read on to explore more about botany meaning by referring to the below-mentioned topics – branches and importance of botany.

History of Botany

Plants are the major source of life on earth. They provide us with food, oxygen and a variety of raw materials for various industrial and domestic purposes. That is why humans have always been interested in plants since time immemorial.

The Greek scholar Theophrastus was one of the early Botanists of the world. He is also known as the “Father of Botany” due to his major writings on plants. One of his books called “Enquiry into Plants” classified the plants based on the geographical ranges, sizes, uses and growth patterns. The other work called “On the Causes of Plants” explained the economics of growing plants.

Dioscorides was another Greek physician from 90-40 A.D. who wrote an encyclopedia about herbal medicines known as “De Materia Medica”. This book was used as an important medicinal guidebook for over 1500 years until the invention of the compound microscope.

The invention of the compound microscope by Robert Hooke in 1665 marked the advancement of scientific knowledge in the field of Botany. It helped in the study of the anatomy and physiology of plants. The discovery of chlorophyll helped in understanding the process of photosynthesis. Gregor Mendel studied the genetic inheritance in plants through his experiments on pea plants.

With the advent of biotechnology and genetic engineering, scientists are able to understand the plant structure in a better way and have devised better ways of improving crop yield and crop health.

Also Read: Plant Kingdom

Branches of Botany

Botany is divided into a number of branches:

Plant Pathology

It is the study of organisms and environmental conditions that are responsible for causing diseases in plants, the mechanisms by which the disease occurs, and the methods of controlling plant diseases.

Plant Ecology

Plant ecology studies the distribution of plants, how do the environmental factors affect plants and the interaction between plants and other organisms.

Palaeobotany

This is the branch of botany that deals with the recovery and identification of plant fossils, thereby, studying the evolutionary history of plants.

Archaeobotany

It is the branch of Botany in which the scientists study as to how were the plants used by the people in the past. Understanding a plant also helps in understanding the medicinal and spiritual significances of a plant in the past.

Forensic Botany

Forensic botany is the use of plants and parts of plants such as pollens, seeds, leaves, etc. to investigate criminal or non-criminal cases, legal disputes or questions, to discover the cause of death or former location.

Importance of Botany

Plants are an integral part of human life. They are used in various aspects of day to day lives. Botany studies the characteristics and uses of these plants and hence are very important.

The importance of Botany can be understood by the following points:

1. Botany deals with the study of different kinds of plants, its uses and characteristics to influence the fields of science, medicine and cosmetics.

2. Botany is the key to the development of biofuels such as biomass and methane gas that are used as alternatives to fossil fuels.

3. Botany is important in the area of economic productivity because it is involved in the study of crops and ideal growing techniques that helps farmers increase crop yield.

4. The study of plants is also important in environment protection. The Botanists list the different types of plants present on earth and can sense when the plant populations start declining.

What is Ecology?

Ecology is a  branch of science, including human science, population, community, ecosystem and biosphere. Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms interact with each other and their environment. It is studied at various levels, such as organism, population, community, biosphere and ecosystem.

An ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life processes, adaptations and habitats, interactions and biodiversity of organisms.

Let us have a detailed look at the ecology notes provided here and explore the concept of ecology.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

The main aim of ecology is to understand the distribution of biotic and abiotic factors of living things in the environment. The biotic and abiotic factors include the living and non-living factors and their interaction with the environment.

Biotic components

Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. A few examples of biotic components include bacteria,  animals, birds,  fungi, plants, etc.

Abiotic components

Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an ecosystem. These components could be acquired from the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. A few examples of abiotic components include sunlight, soil, air, moisture minerals and more.

Living organisms are grouped into biotic components, whereas non-living components like sunlight, water, topography are listed under abiotic components.

Types of Ecology

The diagram showing different Types of Ecology

Ecology can be classified into different types. The different types of ecology are given below:

Global Ecology

It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere and oceans. It helps to understand the large-scale interactions and their influence on the planet.

Landscape Ecology

It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms and other products of ecosystems. Landscape ecology throws light on the role of human impacts on the landscape structures and functions.

Ecosystem Ecology

It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-living components and their relationship with the environment. This science researches how ecosystems work, their interactions, etc.

Community Ecology

It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among living organisms. Ecology community is made up of two or more populations of different species living in a particular geographic area.

Population Ecology

It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the size of the population of organisms. Ecologists are interested in fluctuations in the size of a population, the growth of a population and any other interactions with the population.

In biology, a population can be defined as a set of individuals of the same species living in a given place at a given time. Births and immigration are the main factors that increase the population and death and emigration are the main factors that decrease the population.

Population ecology examines the population distribution and density. Population density is the number of individuals in a given volume or area. This helps in determining whether a particular species is in endanger or its number is to be controlled and resources to be replenished.

Organismal Ecology

Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism’s behaviour, morphology, physiology, etc. in response to environmental challenges. It looks at how individual organisms interact with biotic and abiotic components. Ecologists research how organisms are adapted to these non-living and living components of their surroundings.

Individual species are related to various adaptations like physiological adaptation,  morphological adaptation, and behavioural adaptation.

Molecular Ecology

The study of ecology focuses on the production of proteins and how these proteins affect the organisms and their environment. This happens at the molecular level.

DNA forms the proteins that interact with each other and the environment. These interactions give rise to some complex organisms.

Importance of Ecology

The following reasons explain the importance of ecology:

Conservation of Environment

Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It shows the individuals the extent of damage we cause to the environment.

Lack of understanding of ecology has led to the degradation of land and the environment. It has also led to the extinction and endangerment of certain species. For eg., dinosaurs, white shark, mammoths, etc. Thus, the study of the environment and organisms helps us to protect them from any damage and danger.

Resource Allocation

With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are necessary for the survival of different organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge has led to scarcity and deprivation of these resources, leading to competition.

Energy Conservation

All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of ecological understanding leads to the over-exploitation of energy resources such as light, nutrition and radiation, leading to its depletion.

Proper knowledge of ecological requirements prevents the unnecessary wastage of energy resources, thereby, conserving energy for future purposes.

Eco-Friendliness

Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption of a lifestyle that protects the ecology of life.

Examples of Ecology

Following are a few examples of ecology:

Human Ecology

It focuses on the relationship between humans and the environment. It emphasizes the impact human beings have on the environment and gives knowledge on how we can improve ourselves for the betterment of humans and the environment.

Niche Construction

It deals with the study of how organisms alter the environment for the benefit of themselves and other living beings. For eg, termites create a 6 feet tall mound and at the same time feed and protect their entire population.

Also Read: Biodiversity

To explore more about what is ecology, importance and types of ecology, keep visiting the BYJU’S website or download the BYJU’S app for further reference.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1

What is ecology?

Ecology is the branch of science that deals with the relationship of organisms with one another and with their physical surroundings.

Q2

What are the different levels of ecology?

The different levels of ecology include- organisms, communities, population and ecosystem.

Q3

What are the different types of ecology?

The different types of ecology include- molecular ecology, organismal ecology, population ecology, community ecology, global ecology, landscape ecology and ecosystem ecology.

Q4

How are ecology and evolution related?

Ecology plays a significant role in forming new species and modifying the existing ones. Natural selection is one of the many factors that influences evolutionary change.

Q5

Who devised the word ecology?

Ecology was first devised by Ernst Haeckel, a German Zoologist. However, ecology has its origins in other sciences such as geology, biology, and evolution among others.

Q6

What is habitat ecology?

Habitat ecology is the type of natural environment in which a particular species of an organism live, characterized by both physical and biological features.

Q7

What is a niche?

An organism free from the interference of other species and can use a full range of biotic and abiotic resources in which it can survive and reproduce is known as its fundamental niche.

Genetics

Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of heredity and its biological process. It also involves the study of genes, genomes and the cell cycle.

What is Genetics?

Genetics is termed as the study to understand the functioning of inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. The groundwork on which heredity stands is known as inheritance. It is defined as the procedure by which characteristics are handed down from one generation to the other. Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the “Father of Modern Genetics” for his discoveries on the basic principles of heredity.

Variation, as the name suggests is the amount of dissimilarity that exists between children and their parentages. It can be determined to keep in view the behaviouristic, cytological, physiological, and morphological characters of individuals fitting into similar species.

Some of the major reasons that variation are

• Genetic/Chromosomal rearrangement.

• Mutated genes due to the influence of the ecosystem.

• Crossing over.

Let us have a detailed look at genetics notes to learn about genes and the principle of inheritance.

Law of Inheritance by Gregor Mendel

Garden Pea (Pisum Sativum) was the plant that Mendel experimented on for 7 years to get to the point to propose the laws of inheritance in live creatures. Mendel carefully chose seven distinct characteristics of Pisum Sativum for the investigation concerning hybridization. Mendel used true-breeding lines i.e. those that go through constant self-pollination and display steady characteristic inheritance.

Also Read:  Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Principles of Inheritance

When Mendel observed the monohybrid cross he proposed two laws of inheritance-

Law of Dominance – Distinct elements termed as factors control the characteristics. These factors at all times exist as a couple. One of the constituent genes of the couple dominates over the former.

Law of Segregation – Alleles don’t blend and the two characteristics are recuperated all through the gamete formation (in the F2 generation). The characters are apart from each other and pass on to diverse gametes. Comparable types of gametes are produced by Homozygous and Heterozygous produces diverse sorts of a gamete with varied characteristics.

Also Refer: Principles of Heredity

Incomplete Dominance

It is the discovery that was done after Mendel’s work. Incomplete dominance is the situation in which both the alleles do not display a dominant trait resulting in a fine combination or a midway amid the characteristics of the alleles.

Explore more: Incomplete dominance

Codominance

When two alleles lack the dominant-recessive association and thus the duo affects the creature together.

Law of Independent Assortment

The separation of one set of characteristics is autonomous of the other set of characters when they are pooled in a hybrid.

The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

Both genes and chromosomes exist in sets of two. The homologous chromosome contains the two alleles of a gene pair in the homologous sites. The coupling and split of a set of chromosomes will cause a split in the set of genes (factor) they carry. This united knowledge is termed the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance.

Sex Determination

A particular nuclear arrangement was perceived by Henking. He perceived that this particular nuclear arrangement was found in only fifty per cent of sperms. He termed this body as x. Later, it was observed that the ova which only obtained the X chromosome matured and were born as females and those that didn’t receive only X chromosomes were born as males. Thus, the X- chromosome was termed a sex chromosome and the remaining ones were termed autosomes.

The occurrence due to which a modification in DNA happens and causes a variation in the phenotype and genotype of a creature is termed a Mutation.

Explore more: Determination Of Sex

Genetic Disorders

Disorders of a Mendelian nature include:

• Haemophilia.

• Sickle Cell Anaemia.

• Phenylketonuria.

Disorders of a chromosomal nature include:

• Down’s syndrome.

• Klinefelter’s Syndrome.

• Turners Syndrome.

Immunology Definition

“The study of the immune system, the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity and immune responses.”

Immunology is a branch of biology involved with the study of the immune system, components of the immune system, its biological processes, the physiological functioning of the immune system, types, its disorders and a lot more.

The immune system acts as a body’s defence system by protecting our body cells, tissues and organs from invading infections through various lines of defence. Overall, the immune system functions by recognising and destroying foreign antigens including harmful microorganisms and other disease-causing microbes.

Under certain conditions, when our immune system is weak or stops functioning, this results in various infectious diseases, such as fever and flu,  and may also lead to dreadful diseases like cancer AIDS, etc.

Also Read: Immunity

Let us have a detailed look at Immunology to learn about the immune system, its different parts, functions and other significance of Immunology.

Immune System

Immune system consists of different types of cells and organs which protect our body against pathogens. Pathogens are defined as microorganisms that cause infections in the body such as bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoans. Antigens are molecules that elicit antibody generation. They can be everything that does not belong to our body, from parasites to fungi, bacteria, viruses, and haptens. Haptens are molecules that can elicit an immune response when combined with a carrier molecule. All the cells and molecules of the immune system are distributed in all the tissues of the body as well as lymphoid organs which eliminate microbial infectious diseases, decrease the growth of tumours and starts the repairing process of damaged tissues.

The tissues and organs of the immune system act as security forces where cells act as the security guards while molecules act as the guns & bullets and use the communication system to protect you.

Types of Immune System

We, humans, have two types of Immune system and are classified based on whether they are present at the time of birth or not.

1. Innate Immune System.

2. Adaptive Immune System.

Innate Immune System

Immune System fights against microbes and prevent their entry inside the body.

Innate Immune System is composed of cells and proteins that are always present and are ready to fight against microbes in the infection area. Innate Immune System is present from the time of our birth.

Main elements of the innate immune system are –

• Dendritic cells.

• Phagocytic leukocytes.

• Natural killer (NK) cell.

• Physical epithelial barriers.

• Circulating plasma proteins.

Adaptive Immune System

The adaptive immune system is required to fight against pathogens that cannot be controlled by innate immune defences. It is also referred to as the acquired immune system because it is acquired during the course of life. They are specific to the type of pathogen invading the body.

All the components of the adaptive immune system are generally inactive however when activated these components adjust to the presence of all the infectious agents by proliferating and developing a potent mechanism for eliminating the microbes.

Two Types of adaptive responses are – humoral immunity moderated by antibodies which are developed by B lymphocytes and cell-mediated immunity, moderated by T Lymphocytes.

Immunology and Diseases

Immunological diseases are caused by defects in immune system. The immune system may be hyperactivated to release antibodies and other chemicals. This results in allergy and anaphylaxis. Sometimes the immune system fails to differentiate self cells from no-self cells, resulting in autoimmune diseases. In this situation, the immune system is challenged and evoke responses that damage cells and tissues rather than protecting. All the immunodeficiency diseases increase the risk of tumours and infections and are caused by malnutrition, immune suppresents, gene mutations, and viruses such as HIV.

Also Refer: Antigens and Immunology

Symptoms of Immune Dysfunction

• Bowel disorders.

• Parasite infections.

• Candida overgrowth.

• Allergies and Asthma.

• Frequent colds and flu.

• Autoimmune disorders.

• Painful joints and muscles.

• Herpes (cold sore) outbreak.

• HPV and abnormal PAP smears.

• Rhinitis or a constant runny nose.

• Psoriasis, eczema, hives or rashes.

Immunology Techniques

This is an experimental method used for studying the structure and functions of the immune system. There are different techniques, which includes:

• ELISA.

• ELISPOT.

• Immune cell isolation.

• Immuno-histo-chemistry.

• Generation of Antibodies.

• Immuno-blotting and precipitation.

• Isolation and Purification of Antibodies.

Applications of Immunology

Immunology is widely used in numerous disciplines, including medicine, in the fields of organ transplantation, bacteriology, oncology, virology, parasitology, rheumatic diseases, psychiatric disorders, and dermatology. The Immunology of transplantation mainly deals with the process of transplantation from a donor to the recipient, so that the recipient’s body does not reject the organ.

This was a brief introduction to Immunology, for more information on Immunology, immune system, its techniques, notes for Immunology Class 12, visit us at BYJU’S Biology.

Frequently Asked Questions on Immunology

Q1

What is ELISA?

Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay is known as ELISA. It uses antibodies to detect the presence of certain proteins in the sample. ELISA is used as a diagnostic tool.

Q2

What is hay fever?

Hay fever is the allergic response to certain allergens from the environment such as pollens, dust mites and fur.

Q3

What is graft rejection?

Graft rejection is the immune response happening in the recipient’s body, that attack and destroys the donated organ.

Q4

What is histocompatibility?

Histocompatibility is the property of having similar alleles in the Major Histocompatibility Complex [MHC]. It is required for organ transplantation.

Q5

Is thymus present in adults?

The thymus is active till puberty and after that, it slowly degenerates and is replaced by fat tissues.

Introduction to Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of a variety of living organisms which are invisible to the naked eye like bacteria and fungi and many other microscopic organisms. Although tiny in size these organisms form the basis for all life on earth. These microbes are also known to produce the soil in which plants grow and fix the atmospheric gases that both plants and animals use. About 3 billion years ago at the time of the formation of the earth, microbes were the only lives on earth. Microorganisms have played a key role in the evolution of the planet earth. The history and scope of microbiology is a diverse topic which will be discussed later in detail.

Microorganisms affect animals, the environment, the food supply and also the healthcare industry. There are many different areas of microbiology including environmental, veterinary, food, pharmaceutical and medical microbiology, which is the most prominent.

Microorganisms are very important to the environment, human health and the economy. Few have immense beneficial effects without which we could not exist. Others are really harmful, and our effort to overcome their effects tests our understanding and skills. The uses of microbiology can be beneficial or harmful depending on what we require from them.

Harmful Microorganisms

Disease and decay are neither inherent properties of organic objects, nor are caused by physical damage, it is microorganisms that bring about these changes. We are surrounded by bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Many microorganisms cause diseases in cattle, crops and others are known for entering human bodies and causing various diseases.

Examples of familiar human diseases are:

Bacteria: pneumonia, bacterial dysentery, diphtheria, bubonic plague, meningitis, typhoid, cholera, salmonella, meningococcal

Virus:  Chickenpox, measles, mumps, German measles, colds, warts, cold sores, influenza

Protozoa: amoebic dysentery, malaria,

Fungi: ringworm, athlete’s foot

Useful Microorganisms

As decomposers, bacteria and fungi play an important role in an ecosystem. They break down dead or waste organic matter and release inorganic molecules. Green plants take these nutrients which are in turn consumed by animals, and the products of these plants and animals are again broken down by decomposers.

Yeast is a single-celled fungus that lives naturally on the surface of the fruit. It is economically important in bread-making and brewing beer and also in the making of yoghurt.

Most microorganisms are unicellular; if they are multicellular, they lack highly differentiated tissues.

There are fundamentally two different types of cells, One being Prokaryotic and the other Eukaryotic

Microbes especially prokaryotes are numerous in number in comparison to eukaryotes.

The lineage of life on Earth originated from these microbes:

1. Bacteria

2. Archaea

3. Eucarya

Branches of Microbiology

There are various different branches of microbiology and these include the following:

1. Bacteriology- The study of bacteria

2. Mycology –The study of fungi

3. Phycology- The study of photosynthetic eukaryotes. (Algae- Seaweed)

4. Protozoology – The study of protozoa (Single-celled eukaryotes)

5. Virology- The study of viruses, non-cellular particles which parasitize cells.

6. Parasitology- The study of parasites which include pathogenic protozoa certain insects and helminth worms.

7. Nematology- The study of nematodes.

Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more about Microbiology and its importance.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1

Define medical microbiology.

Medical microbiology can be defined as a branch of microbiology that deals with the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of infectious diseases.

Q2

What is the golden era of microbiology?

The time between 1850 to 1915 is considered as the golden era of microbiology.

Q3

What is the relevance of microbiology in nursing?

In nursing, microbiology helps the professionals to understand the interaction between humans and microbes. It also helps in understanding the basic morphology, reproductive and biochemical properties of microorganisms.

Q4

State the contribution of scientists in microbiology.

Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch gave the germ theory of disease and Koch’s postulates, which was a big contribution to the beginning of microbiology.